diff --git a/.github/workflows/integration-test.yml b/.github/workflows/integration-test.yml
index 16a0ae409..58635272d 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/integration-test.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/integration-test.yml
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ jobs:
 
       - name: Run Logto
         working-directory: logto/
-        run: npm start &
+        run: nohup npm start > nohup.out 2> nohup.err < /dev/null &
         env:
           INTEGRATION_TEST: true
 
@@ -101,3 +101,11 @@ jobs:
           cd tests/packages/integration-tests
           pnpm build
           pnpm test:${{ matrix.test_target }}
+
+      - name: Show logs
+        working-directory: logto/
+        run: cat nohup.out
+
+      - name: Show error logs
+        working-directory: logto/
+        run: cat nohup.err
diff --git a/.github/workflows/main.yml b/.github/workflows/main.yml
index c654913d7..85db7712a 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/main.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/main.yml
@@ -173,10 +173,6 @@ jobs:
         run: node .scripts/compare-database.js fresh old
       # ** End **
 
-      - name: Check database
-        working-directory: ./fresh
-        run: node .scripts/check-database.js fresh
-
       - name: Check alteration databases
         working-directory: ./fresh
         run: node .scripts/check-alterations-sequence.js
diff --git a/.scripts/check-database.js b/.scripts/check-database.js
deleted file mode 100644
index 26165cf3e..000000000
--- a/.scripts/check-database.js
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,3 +0,0 @@
-throw new Error('not implemented');
-
-// TODO: check tables have tenant_id
diff --git a/.scripts/compare-database.js b/.scripts/compare-database.js
index 9f6f09331..a6a10a1d0 100644
--- a/.scripts/compare-database.js
+++ b/.scripts/compare-database.js
@@ -117,20 +117,12 @@ assert.deepStrictEqual(...manifests);
 const queryDatabaseData = async (database) => {
   const pool = new pg.Pool({ database, user: 'postgres', password: 'postgres' });
   const result = await Promise.all(manifests[0].tables
-    .filter(({ table_name }) => !['logto_configs', '_logto_configs'].includes(table_name))
+    // system configs are usually generated or time-relative, ignore for now
+    .filter(({ table_name }) => !['logto_configs', '_logto_configs', 'systems'].includes(table_name))
     .map(async ({ table_name }) => {
       const { rows } = await pool.query(/* sql */`select * from ${table_name};`);
 
-      if (table_name === 'systems') {
-        return [
-          table_name,
-          rows.map(({ value, ...rest }) => 
-            ({ ...rest, value: omit(value, 'createdAt', 'updatedAt') })
-          ),
-        ];
-      }
-
-      return [table_name, omitArray(rows, 'created_at', 'updated_at', 'secret')];
+      return [table_name, omitArray(rows, 'created_at', 'updated_at', 'secret', 'db_user', 'db_user_password')];
     })
   );
 
diff --git a/packages/core/jest.setup.js b/packages/core/jest.setup.js
index 1ee99e947..0cd06ef71 100644
--- a/packages/core/jest.setup.js
+++ b/packages/core/jest.setup.js
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
  */
 
 import { createMockUtils } from '@logto/shared/esm';
-import { createMockQueryResult, createMockPool } from 'slonik';
 
 const { jest } = import.meta;
 const { mockEsm, mockEsmWithActual, mockEsmDefault } = createMockUtils(jest);
@@ -12,6 +11,7 @@ process.env.DB_URL = 'postgres://mock.db.url';
 process.env.ENDPOINT = 'https://logto.test';
 process.env.NODE_ENV = 'test';
 
+/* Mock for EnvSet */
 mockEsm('#src/libraries/logto-config.js', () => ({
   createLogtoConfigLibrary: () => ({ getOidcConfigs: () => ({}) }),
 }));
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ mockEsm('#src/env-set/check-alteration-state.js', () => ({
 mockEsmDefault('#src/env-set/oidc.js', () => () => ({
   issuer: 'https://logto.test/oidc',
 }));
+/* End */
 
 await mockEsmWithActual('#src/env-set/index.js', () => ({
   MountedApps: {
@@ -33,18 +34,6 @@ await mockEsmWithActual('#src/env-set/index.js', () => ({
     DemoApp: 'demo-app',
     Welcome: 'welcome',
   },
-  // TODO: Remove after clean up of default env sets
-  default: {
-    get oidc() {
-      return {
-        issuer: 'https://logto.test/oidc',
-      };
-    },
-    get pool() {
-      return createMockPool({ query: async () => createMockQueryResult([]) });
-    },
-    load: jest.fn(),
-  },
 }));
 
 // Logger is not considered in all test cases
diff --git a/packages/core/package.json b/packages/core/package.json
index 25d9e7a50..7db6f7a04 100644
--- a/packages/core/package.json
+++ b/packages/core/package.json
@@ -34,8 +34,8 @@
     "@logto/schemas": "workspace:*",
     "@logto/shared": "workspace:*",
     "@silverhand/essentials": "2.1.0",
-    "@withtyped/postgres": "^0.4.1",
-    "@withtyped/server": "^0.4.1",
+    "@withtyped/postgres": "^0.5.1",
+    "@withtyped/server": "^0.5.1",
     "chalk": "^5.0.0",
     "clean-deep": "^3.4.0",
     "date-fns": "^2.29.3",
diff --git a/packages/core/src/app/init.ts b/packages/core/src/app/init.ts
index 1370d7cb7..6af14b6d8 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/app/init.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/app/init.ts
@@ -17,8 +17,15 @@ const logListening = (type: 'core' | 'admin' = 'core') => {
 };
 
 const getTenantId = () => {
-  if (!EnvSet.values.isDomainBasedMultiTenancy) {
-    return (!EnvSet.values.isProduction && EnvSet.values.developmentTenantId) || defaultTenant;
+  const { isDomainBasedMultiTenancy, isProduction, isIntegrationTest, developmentTenantId } =
+    EnvSet.values;
+
+  if (!isDomainBasedMultiTenancy) {
+    if ((!isProduction || isIntegrationTest) && developmentTenantId) {
+      return developmentTenantId;
+    }
+
+    return defaultTenant;
   }
 
   throw new Error('Not implemented');
diff --git a/packages/core/src/env-set/index.ts b/packages/core/src/env-set/index.ts
index 5b529a117..b95341d92 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/env-set/index.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/env-set/index.ts
@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@ import { createLogtoConfigLibrary } from '#src/libraries/logto-config.js';
 import { appendPath } from '#src/utils/url.js';
 
 import GlobalValues from './GlobalValues.js';
-import { checkAlterationState } from './check-alteration-state.js';
 import createPool from './create-pool.js';
 import createQueryClient from './create-query-client.js';
 import loadOidcValues from './oidc.js';
@@ -23,12 +22,20 @@ export enum MountedApps {
 
 export class EnvSet {
   static values = new GlobalValues();
-  static default = new EnvSet(EnvSet.values.dbUrl);
 
   static get isTest() {
     return this.values.isTest;
   }
 
+  static get dbUrl() {
+    return this.values.dbUrl;
+  }
+
+  static queryClient = createQueryClient(this.dbUrl, this.isTest);
+
+  /** @deprecated Only for backward compatibility; Will be replaced soon. */
+  static pool = createPool(this.dbUrl, this.isTest);
+
   #pool: Optional<DatabasePool>;
   // Use another pool for `withtyped` while adopting the new model,
   // as we cannot extract the original PgPool from slonik
@@ -76,12 +83,11 @@ export class EnvSet {
     this.#queryClient = createQueryClient(this.databaseUrl, EnvSet.isTest);
 
     const { getOidcConfigs } = createLogtoConfigLibrary(pool);
-    const [, oidcConfigs] = await Promise.all([checkAlterationState(pool), getOidcConfigs()]);
+
+    const oidcConfigs = await getOidcConfigs();
     this.#oidc = await loadOidcValues(
       appendPath(EnvSet.values.endpoint, '/oidc').toString(),
       oidcConfigs
     );
   }
 }
-
-await EnvSet.default.load();
diff --git a/packages/core/src/index.ts b/packages/core/src/index.ts
index 78a36aa86..2001b241b 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/index.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/index.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,8 @@ import dotenv from 'dotenv';
 import { findUp } from 'find-up';
 import Koa from 'koa';
 
+import { checkAlterationState } from './env-set/check-alteration-state.js';
+
 dotenv.config({ path: await findUp('.env', {}) });
 
 // Import after env has been configured
@@ -17,7 +19,10 @@ try {
   });
   await initI18n();
   await loadConnectorFactories();
-  await checkRowLevelSecurity(EnvSet.default.queryClient);
+  await Promise.all([
+    checkRowLevelSecurity(EnvSet.queryClient),
+    checkAlterationState(await EnvSet.pool),
+  ]);
 
   // Import last until init completed
   const { default: initApp } = await import('./app/init.js');
diff --git a/packages/core/src/libraries/hook.test.ts b/packages/core/src/libraries/hook.test.ts
index 068196b6a..65443520e 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/libraries/hook.test.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/libraries/hook.test.ts
@@ -27,7 +27,6 @@ const queryFunction = jest.fn();
 
 const url = 'https://logto.gg';
 const hook: InferModelType<ModelRouters['hook']['model']> = {
-  tenantId: undefined,
   id: 'foo',
   event: HookEvent.PostSignIn,
   config: { headers: { bar: 'baz' }, url, retries: 3 },
diff --git a/packages/core/src/middleware/koa-auth.test.ts b/packages/core/src/middleware/koa-auth.test.ts
index 0e431c197..6964f107e 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/middleware/koa-auth.test.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/middleware/koa-auth.test.ts
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import Sinon from 'sinon';
 
 import { EnvSet } from '#src/env-set/index.js';
 import RequestError from '#src/errors/RequestError/index.js';
+import { mockEnvSet } from '#src/test-utils/env-set.js';
 import { createContextWithRouteParameters } from '#src/utils/test-utils.js';
 
 import type { WithAuthContext } from './koa-auth.js';
@@ -63,7 +64,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       developmentUserId: 'foo',
     });
 
-    await koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(ctx, next);
+    await koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(ctx, next);
     expect(ctx.auth).toEqual({ type: 'user', id: 'foo' });
 
     stub.restore();
@@ -78,7 +79,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       },
     };
 
-    await koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(mockCtx, next);
+    await koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(mockCtx, next);
     expect(mockCtx.auth).toEqual({ type: 'user', id: 'foo' });
   });
 
@@ -90,7 +91,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       isIntegrationTest: true,
     });
 
-    await koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(ctx, next);
+    await koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(ctx, next);
     expect(ctx.auth).toEqual({ type: 'user', id: 'foo' });
 
     stub.restore();
@@ -111,7 +112,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       },
     };
 
-    await koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(mockCtx, next);
+    await koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(mockCtx, next);
     expect(mockCtx.auth).toEqual({ type: 'user', id: 'foo' });
 
     stub.restore();
@@ -124,12 +125,12 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
         authorization: 'Bearer access_token',
       },
     };
-    await koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(ctx, next);
+    await koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(ctx, next);
     expect(ctx.auth).toEqual({ type: 'user', id: 'fooUser' });
   });
 
   it('expect to throw if authorization header is missing', async () => {
-    await expect(koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(authHeaderMissingError);
+    await expect(koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(authHeaderMissingError);
   });
 
   it('expect to throw if authorization header token type not recognized ', async () => {
@@ -140,7 +141,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       },
     };
 
-    await expect(koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(tokenNotSupportedError);
+    await expect(koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(tokenNotSupportedError);
   });
 
   it('expect to throw if jwt sub is missing', async () => {
@@ -153,7 +154,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       },
     };
 
-    await expect(koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(jwtSubMissingError);
+    await expect(koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(jwtSubMissingError);
   });
 
   it('expect to have `client` type per jwt verify result', async () => {
@@ -166,7 +167,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       },
     };
 
-    await koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(ctx, next);
+    await koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(ctx, next);
     expect(ctx.auth).toEqual({ type: 'app', id: 'bar' });
   });
 
@@ -180,7 +181,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       },
     };
 
-    await expect(koaAuth(EnvSet.default, UserRole.Admin)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(
+    await expect(koaAuth(mockEnvSet, UserRole.Admin)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(
       forbiddenError
     );
   });
@@ -197,7 +198,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       },
     };
 
-    await expect(koaAuth(EnvSet.default, UserRole.Admin)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(
+    await expect(koaAuth(mockEnvSet, UserRole.Admin)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(
       forbiddenError
     );
   });
@@ -213,7 +214,7 @@ describe('koaAuth middleware', () => {
       },
     };
 
-    await expect(koaAuth(EnvSet.default)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(
+    await expect(koaAuth(mockEnvSet)(ctx, next)).rejects.toMatchError(
       new RequestError({ code: 'auth.unauthorized', status: 401 }, new Error('unknown error'))
     );
   });
diff --git a/packages/core/src/oidc/adapter.test.ts b/packages/core/src/oidc/adapter.test.ts
index ef15d8342..23e39e0bb 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/oidc/adapter.test.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/oidc/adapter.test.ts
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ import { createMockUtils } from '@logto/shared/esm';
 import snakecaseKeys from 'snakecase-keys';
 
 import { mockApplication } from '#src/__mocks__/index.js';
-import { EnvSet } from '#src/env-set/index.js';
+import { mockEnvSet } from '#src/test-utils/env-set.js';
 import { MockQueries } from '#src/test-utils/tenant.js';
 
 import { getConstantClientMetadata } from './utils.js';
@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ const now = Date.now();
 describe('postgres Adapter', () => {
   it('Client Modal', async () => {
     const rejectError = new Error('Not implemented');
-    const adapter = postgresAdapter(EnvSet.default, queries, 'Client');
+    const adapter = postgresAdapter(mockEnvSet, queries, 'Client');
 
     await expect(adapter.upsert('client', {}, 0)).rejects.toMatchError(rejectError);
     await expect(adapter.findByUserCode('foo')).rejects.toMatchError(rejectError);
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ describe('postgres Adapter', () => {
       client_id,
       client_name,
       client_secret,
-      ...getConstantClientMetadata(EnvSet.default, type),
+      ...getConstantClientMetadata(mockEnvSet, type),
       ...snakecaseKeys(oidcClientMetadata),
       ...customClientMetadata,
     });
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ describe('postgres Adapter', () => {
     const id = 'fooId';
     const grantId = 'grantId';
     const expireAt = 60;
-    const adapter = postgresAdapter(EnvSet.default, queries, modelName);
+    const adapter = postgresAdapter(mockEnvSet, queries, modelName);
 
     await adapter.upsert(id, { uid, userCode }, expireAt);
     expect(upsertInstance).toBeCalledWith({
diff --git a/packages/core/src/oidc/init.test.ts b/packages/core/src/oidc/init.test.ts
index f16d92764..212f63204 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/oidc/init.test.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/oidc/init.test.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import { EnvSet } from '#src/env-set/index.js';
+import { mockEnvSet } from '#src/test-utils/env-set.js';
 import { MockTenant } from '#src/test-utils/tenant.js';
 
 import initOidc from './init.js';
@@ -7,6 +7,6 @@ describe('oidc provider init', () => {
   it('init should not throw', async () => {
     const { queries, libraries } = new MockTenant();
 
-    expect(() => initOidc(EnvSet.default, queries, libraries)).not.toThrow();
+    expect(() => initOidc(mockEnvSet, queries, libraries)).not.toThrow();
   });
 });
diff --git a/packages/core/src/oidc/utils.test.ts b/packages/core/src/oidc/utils.test.ts
index fed59cc9a..b45862457 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/oidc/utils.test.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/oidc/utils.test.ts
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 import { ApplicationType, CustomClientMetadataKey, GrantType } from '@logto/schemas';
 
-import { EnvSet } from '#src/env-set/index.js';
+import { mockEnvSet } from '#src/test-utils/env-set.js';
 
 import {
   isOriginAllowed,
@@ -10,22 +10,22 @@ import {
 } from './utils.js';
 
 describe('getConstantClientMetadata()', () => {
-  expect(getConstantClientMetadata(EnvSet.default, ApplicationType.SPA)).toEqual({
+  expect(getConstantClientMetadata(mockEnvSet, ApplicationType.SPA)).toEqual({
     application_type: 'web',
     grant_types: [GrantType.AuthorizationCode, GrantType.RefreshToken],
     token_endpoint_auth_method: 'none',
   });
-  expect(getConstantClientMetadata(EnvSet.default, ApplicationType.Native)).toEqual({
+  expect(getConstantClientMetadata(mockEnvSet, ApplicationType.Native)).toEqual({
     application_type: 'native',
     grant_types: [GrantType.AuthorizationCode, GrantType.RefreshToken],
     token_endpoint_auth_method: 'none',
   });
-  expect(getConstantClientMetadata(EnvSet.default, ApplicationType.Traditional)).toEqual({
+  expect(getConstantClientMetadata(mockEnvSet, ApplicationType.Traditional)).toEqual({
     application_type: 'web',
     grant_types: [GrantType.AuthorizationCode, GrantType.RefreshToken],
     token_endpoint_auth_method: 'client_secret_basic',
   });
-  expect(getConstantClientMetadata(EnvSet.default, ApplicationType.MachineToMachine)).toEqual({
+  expect(getConstantClientMetadata(mockEnvSet, ApplicationType.MachineToMachine)).toEqual({
     application_type: 'web',
     grant_types: [GrantType.ClientCredentials],
     token_endpoint_auth_method: 'client_secret_basic',
diff --git a/packages/core/src/tenants/Tenant.test.ts b/packages/core/src/tenants/Tenant.test.ts
index 870a4344b..40f8a303c 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/tenants/Tenant.test.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/tenants/Tenant.test.ts
@@ -25,6 +25,10 @@ const middlewareList = [
   return mock;
 });
 
+mockEsm('./utils.js', () => ({
+  getTenantDatabaseDsn: async () => 'postgres://mock.db.url',
+}));
+
 // eslint-disable-next-line unicorn/consistent-function-scoping
 mockEsmDefault('#src/oidc/init.js', () => () => createMockProvider());
 
diff --git a/packages/core/src/tenants/Tenant.ts b/packages/core/src/tenants/Tenant.ts
index 603d6bb93..1afde1df8 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/tenants/Tenant.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/tenants/Tenant.ts
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ import { getTenantDatabaseDsn } from './utils.js';
 export default class Tenant implements TenantContext {
   static async create(id: string): Promise<Tenant> {
     // Treat the default database URL as the management URL
-    const envSet = new EnvSet(await getTenantDatabaseDsn(EnvSet.default, id));
+    const envSet = new EnvSet(await getTenantDatabaseDsn(id));
     await envSet.load();
 
     return new Tenant(envSet, id);
diff --git a/packages/core/src/tenants/index.ts b/packages/core/src/tenants/index.ts
index 22b3107f9..365acc433 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/tenants/index.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/tenants/index.ts
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ class TenantPool {
       return tenant;
     }
 
+    console.log('Init tenant:', tenantId);
     const newTenant = await Tenant.create(tenantId);
     this.cache.set(tenantId, newTenant);
 
diff --git a/packages/core/src/tenants/utils.ts b/packages/core/src/tenants/utils.ts
index cb81e1b23..4c0097aea 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/tenants/utils.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/tenants/utils.ts
@@ -6,20 +6,21 @@ import { identifier, sql } from '@withtyped/postgres';
 import type { QueryClient } from '@withtyped/server';
 import { parseDsn, stringifyDsn } from 'slonik';
 
-import type { EnvSet } from '#src/env-set/index.js';
+import { EnvSet } from '#src/env-set/index.js';
 
 /**
  * This function is to fetch the tenant password for the corresponding Postgres user.
  *
  * In multi-tenancy mode, Logto should ALWAYS use a restricted user with RLS enforced to ensure data isolation between tenants.
  */
-export const getTenantDatabaseDsn = async (defaultEnvSet: EnvSet, tenantId: string) => {
+export const getTenantDatabaseDsn = async (tenantId: string) => {
+  const { queryClient, dbUrl } = EnvSet;
   const {
     tableName,
     rawKeys: { id, dbUser, dbUserPassword },
   } = Tenants;
 
-  const { rows } = await defaultEnvSet.queryClient.query(sql`
+  const { rows } = await queryClient.query(sql`
     select ${identifier(dbUser)}, ${identifier(dbUserPassword)}
     from ${identifier(tableName)}
     where ${identifier(id)} = ${tenantId}
@@ -29,14 +30,14 @@ export const getTenantDatabaseDsn = async (defaultEnvSet: EnvSet, tenantId: stri
     throw new Error(`Cannot find valid tenant credentials for ID ${tenantId}`);
   }
 
-  const options = parseDsn(defaultEnvSet.databaseUrl);
+  const options = parseDsn(dbUrl);
   const username = rows[0][dbUser];
   const password = rows[0][dbUserPassword];
 
   return stringifyDsn({
     ...options,
-    username: conditional(!username && String(username)),
-    password: conditional(!password && String(password)),
+    username: conditional(typeof username === 'string' && username),
+    password: conditional(typeof password === 'string' && password),
   });
 };
 
@@ -48,9 +49,7 @@ export const checkRowLevelSecurity = async (client: QueryClient) => {
     and rowsecurity=false
   `);
 
-  if (
-    rows.some(({ tablename }) => tablename !== Systems.table && tablename !== Tenants.tableName)
-  ) {
+  if (rows.some(({ tablename }) => tablename !== Systems.table)) {
     throw new Error(
       'Row-level security has to be enforced on EVERY business table when starting Logto.\n' +
         `Found following table(s) without RLS: ${rows
diff --git a/packages/core/src/test-utils/env-set.ts b/packages/core/src/test-utils/env-set.ts
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b135710e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/core/src/test-utils/env-set.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+import { EnvSet } from '#src/env-set/index.js';
+
+export const mockEnvSet = new EnvSet(EnvSet.values.dbUrl);
+
+await mockEnvSet.load();
diff --git a/packages/core/src/test-utils/tenant.ts b/packages/core/src/test-utils/tenant.ts
index b74698ebd..95fa0d7f7 100644
--- a/packages/core/src/test-utils/tenant.ts
+++ b/packages/core/src/test-utils/tenant.ts
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
 import { createMockPool, createMockQueryResult } from 'slonik';
 
-import { EnvSet } from '#src/env-set/index.js';
 import { createModelRouters } from '#src/model-routers/index.js';
 import Libraries from '#src/tenants/Libraries.js';
 import Queries from '#src/tenants/Queries.js';
 import type TenantContext from '#src/tenants/TenantContext.js';
 
+import { mockEnvSet } from './env-set.js';
 import type { GrantMock } from './oidc-provider.js';
 import { createMockProvider } from './oidc-provider.js';
 import { MockQueryClient } from './query-client.js';
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ export type DeepPartial<T> = T extends object
 export type Partial2<T> = { [key in keyof T]?: Partial<T[key]> };
 
 export class MockTenant implements TenantContext {
-  public envSet = EnvSet.default;
+  public envSet = mockEnvSet;
   public queries: Queries;
   public libraries: Libraries;
   public modelRouters = createModelRouters(new MockQueryClient());
diff --git a/packages/integration-tests/package.json b/packages/integration-tests/package.json
index 03522ec9f..6cebc9fd3 100644
--- a/packages/integration-tests/package.json
+++ b/packages/integration-tests/package.json
@@ -53,6 +53,6 @@
   },
   "prettier": "@silverhand/eslint-config/.prettierrc",
   "dependencies": {
-    "@withtyped/server": "^0.4.1"
+    "@withtyped/server": "^0.5.1"
   }
 }
diff --git a/packages/schemas/alterations/next-1675788753-multi-tenancy-rls.ts b/packages/schemas/alterations/next-1675788753-multi-tenancy-rls.ts
index c1a41f23e..ebe3b594d 100644
--- a/packages/schemas/alterations/next-1675788753-multi-tenancy-rls.ts
+++ b/packages/schemas/alterations/next-1675788753-multi-tenancy-rls.ts
@@ -44,15 +44,34 @@ const alteration: AlterationScript = {
     await pool.query(sql`
       alter table hooks
         add column tenant_id varchar(21) not null default 'default'
-          references tenants (id) on update cascade on delete cascade;
+          references tenants (id) on update cascade on delete cascade,
+        alter column id type varchar(21); -- OK to downsize since we use length 21 for ID generation in core
+
       alter table hooks
         alter column tenant_id drop default;
+
       create index hooks__id on hooks (tenant_id, id);
+
+      drop index hooks__event;
+      create index hooks__event on hooks (tenant_id, event);
+
+      create trigger set_tenant_id before insert on hooks
+        for each row execute procedure set_tenant_id();
+    `);
+
+    // Add db_user column to tenants table
+    await pool.query(sql`
+      alter table tenants
+        add column db_user varchar(128),
+        add constraint tenants__db_user
+          unique (db_user);
     `);
 
     // Create role and setup privileges
     const baseRole = `logto_tenant_${database}`;
     const baseRoleId = getId(baseRole);
+
+    // See `_after_all.sql` for comments
     await pool.query(sql`
       create role ${baseRoleId} noinherit;
 
@@ -65,19 +84,21 @@ const alteration: AlterationScript = {
         on table tenants
         from ${baseRoleId};
 
+      grant select (id, db_user)
+        on table tenants
+        to ${baseRoleId};
+
+      alter table tenants enable row level security;
+
+      create policy tenants_tenant_id on tenants
+        to ${baseRoleId}
+        using (db_user = current_user);
+
       revoke all privileges
         on table systems
         from ${baseRoleId};
     `);
 
-    // Add db_user column to tenants table
-    await pool.query(sql`
-      alter table tenants
-        add column db_user varchar(128),
-        add constraint tenants__db_user
-          unique (db_user);
-    `);
-
     // Enable RLS
     await Promise.all(
       tables.map(async (tableName) =>
@@ -130,6 +151,9 @@ const alteration: AlterationScript = {
         in schema public
         from ${baseRoleId};
 
+      drop policy tenants_tenant_id on tenants;
+      alter table tenants disable row level security;
+
       drop role ${baseRoleId};
     `);
 
@@ -139,13 +163,17 @@ const alteration: AlterationScript = {
         drop column db_user;
     `);
 
-    console.log('3');
     // Revert hooks table from multi-tenancy
     await pool.query(sql`
       drop index hooks__id;
 
       alter table hooks
-        drop column tenant_id;
+        drop column tenant_id,
+        alter column id type varchar(32);
+
+      create index hooks__event on hooks (event);
+
+      drop trigger set_tenant_id on hooks;
     `);
   },
 };
diff --git a/packages/schemas/package.json b/packages/schemas/package.json
index 2d8bfda43..3dea0b0fd 100644
--- a/packages/schemas/package.json
+++ b/packages/schemas/package.json
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@
     "@logto/language-kit": "workspace:*",
     "@logto/phrases": "workspace:*",
     "@logto/phrases-ui": "workspace:*",
-    "@withtyped/server": "^0.4.1",
+    "@withtyped/server": "^0.5.1",
     "zod": "^3.20.2"
   }
 }
diff --git a/packages/schemas/src/models/hooks.ts b/packages/schemas/src/models/hooks.ts
index a8210ee4e..bcd7446c6 100644
--- a/packages/schemas/src/models/hooks.ts
+++ b/packages/schemas/src/models/hooks.ts
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ export const Hooks = createModel(/* sql */ `
 
   create index hooks__event on hooks (tenant_id, event);
 `)
-  .extend('tenantId', z.string().optional())
   .extend('id', { default: () => generateStandardId(), readonly: true })
   .extend('event', z.nativeEnum(HookEvent)) // Tried to use `.refine()` to show the correct error path, but not working.
-  .extend('config', hookConfigGuard);
+  .extend('config', hookConfigGuard)
+  .exclude('tenantId');
diff --git a/packages/schemas/src/models/tenants.ts b/packages/schemas/src/models/tenants.ts
index dbfb8fdfe..e2bd0fd35 100644
--- a/packages/schemas/src/models/tenants.ts
+++ b/packages/schemas/src/models/tenants.ts
@@ -10,6 +10,5 @@ export const Tenants = createModel(/* sql */ `
     constraint tenants__db_user
       unique (db_user)
   );
-
   /* no_after_each */
 `);
diff --git a/packages/schemas/tables/_after_all.sql b/packages/schemas/tables/_after_all.sql
index a3e8d56f7..e9571bd7a 100644
--- a/packages/schemas/tables/_after_all.sql
+++ b/packages/schemas/tables/_after_all.sql
@@ -5,10 +5,27 @@ grant select, insert, update, delete
   in schema public
   to logto_tenant_${database};
 
+-- Security policies for tenants table --
+
 revoke all privileges
   on table tenants
   from logto_tenant_${database};
 
+/* Allow limited select to perform RLS query in `after_each` (using select ... from tenants ...) */
+grant select (id, db_user)
+  on table tenants
+  to logto_tenant_${database};
+
+alter table tenants enable row level security;
+
+/* Create RLS policy to minimize the privilege */
+create policy tenants_tenant_id on tenants
+  to logto_tenant_${database}
+  using (db_user = current_user);
+
+-- End --
+
+/* Revoke all privileges on systems table for tenant roles */
 revoke all privileges
   on table systems
   from logto_tenant_${database};
diff --git a/pnpm-lock.yaml b/pnpm-lock.yaml
index 0b4571efb..b72286380 100644
--- a/pnpm-lock.yaml
+++ b/pnpm-lock.yaml
@@ -276,8 +276,8 @@ importers:
       '@types/semver': ^7.3.12
       '@types/sinon': ^10.0.13
       '@types/supertest': ^2.0.11
-      '@withtyped/postgres': ^0.4.1
-      '@withtyped/server': ^0.4.1
+      '@withtyped/postgres': ^0.5.1
+      '@withtyped/server': ^0.5.1
       chalk: ^5.0.0
       clean-deep: ^3.4.0
       copyfiles: ^2.4.1
@@ -335,8 +335,8 @@ importers:
       '@logto/schemas': link:../schemas
       '@logto/shared': link:../shared
       '@silverhand/essentials': 2.1.0
-      '@withtyped/postgres': 0.4.1_@withtyped+server@0.4.1
-      '@withtyped/server': 0.4.1
+      '@withtyped/postgres': 0.5.1_@withtyped+server@0.5.1
+      '@withtyped/server': 0.5.1
       chalk: 5.1.2
       clean-deep: 3.4.0
       date-fns: 2.29.3
@@ -481,7 +481,7 @@ importers:
       '@types/jest': ^29.1.2
       '@types/jest-environment-puppeteer': ^5.0.2
       '@types/node': ^18.11.18
-      '@withtyped/server': ^0.4.1
+      '@withtyped/server': ^0.5.1
       dotenv: ^16.0.0
       eslint: ^8.21.0
       got: ^12.5.3
@@ -495,7 +495,7 @@ importers:
       text-encoder: ^0.0.4
       typescript: ^4.9.4
     dependencies:
-      '@withtyped/server': 0.4.1
+      '@withtyped/server': 0.5.1
     devDependencies:
       '@jest/types': 29.1.2
       '@logto/connector-kit': link:../toolkit/connector-kit
@@ -585,7 +585,7 @@ importers:
       '@types/jest': ^29.1.2
       '@types/node': ^18.11.18
       '@types/pluralize': ^0.0.29
-      '@withtyped/server': ^0.4.1
+      '@withtyped/server': ^0.5.1
       camelcase: ^7.0.0
       eslint: ^8.21.0
       jest: ^29.1.2
@@ -603,7 +603,7 @@ importers:
       '@logto/language-kit': link:../toolkit/language-kit
       '@logto/phrases': link:../phrases
       '@logto/phrases-ui': link:../phrases-ui
-      '@withtyped/server': 0.4.1
+      '@withtyped/server': 0.5.1
       zod: 3.20.2
     devDependencies:
       '@silverhand/eslint-config': 1.3.0_k3lfx77tsvurbevhk73p7ygch4
@@ -4463,21 +4463,21 @@ packages:
       eslint-visitor-keys: 3.3.0
     dev: true
 
-  /@withtyped/postgres/0.4.1_@withtyped+server@0.4.1:
-    resolution: {integrity: sha512-UZtwUieJyj3tHxGgiskBPFefpkFZgv7yzlXFMmuyG2NNu6P8mFnCSp4vuycmGEJnYRLFrxDvLhjx1qpVlD3k6A==}
+  /@withtyped/postgres/0.5.1_@withtyped+server@0.5.1:
+    resolution: {integrity: sha512-Le4iIHEc4LRgDn4rjnwbGJ/J15PpqEoltgoZAOhYgnZznKBzkp4W3vxbav29x7IMOvzgum+Jo5HOW1q0kRfROg==}
     peerDependencies:
-      '@withtyped/server': ^0.4.1
+      '@withtyped/server': ^0.5.1
     dependencies:
       '@types/pg': 8.6.6
-      '@withtyped/server': 0.4.1
+      '@withtyped/server': 0.5.1
       '@withtyped/shared': 0.2.0
       pg: 8.8.0
     transitivePeerDependencies:
       - pg-native
     dev: false
 
-  /@withtyped/server/0.4.1:
-    resolution: {integrity: sha512-QMhFntmF2o/e9dEJi84+RL+BySzV6+uayY1dL372OmYCcYftPUYYCctvpTaz5eWUipqV/hL4FaEpK1YVEKYPHQ==}
+  /@withtyped/server/0.5.1:
+    resolution: {integrity: sha512-CR7Y4R2YsUNJ7STEzhJjBjCKIJg49r2Jun5tFuTmmH8IAdHacisWPuKyGMz8o8jnatGTBRJNvc2wjjhg0l8ptw==}
     dependencies:
       '@withtyped/shared': 0.2.0
     dev: false